Silphion - an enigmatic panacea since Hippocratic times. Its possible identification with Ferula drudeana: a review of historical connections, chemistry and pharmacology of its secondary metabolites and conservation status

Abstract

Silphion is a medicinal gum-resin produced by silphion plant that is most likely a Ferula species based on the descriptions provided by Theophrastus of Eresus, Pliny the Elder, Pedanius Dioscorides and other ancient scientists as well as numismatic figures on the ancient Cyrenaic coins. Ancient physicians, including Hippocrates, used silphion to treat numerous diseases and medical conditions. According to Pliny the uses of silphion would be “an endless task to record.” In addition to the medicinal uses, silphion was an important spice in both Greek and Roman cuisine. Some medicinal historians believe that silphion was also used as an aphrodisiac and was a potent contraceptive. Being a medicinal plant and spice with so many desired properties naturally increased its value and demand for the silphion that consequently led to over harvesting and destruction of the silphion plant populations. Furthermore, the leaves of silphion plant was important as cattle fodder, Pliny mentioned in his “Natural History” that the sharecroppers who rented pastures in Cyrene stripped it clean by grazing sheep, and the only remaining stalk of silphion was sent as a curiosity to the Emperor Nero. Pliny’s account about the last stalk of silphion in Cyrene suggests that the regional extinction event happened in the 1st century AD. Nevertheless, there were reports about the existence of cultivated silphion plant well into the 5th century AD. Synesius, a Cyrenian bishop of Ptolemais, claimed that he had seen the cultivated silphion and sent silphion juice to his friend Tryphon in Constantinople. Ferula drudeana Korovin, a rare and endemic species, was described from Central Anatolia in the early 20th century. This species was found only three locations all associated with the former Greek village sites. The morphological and organoleptic characteristics of F. drudeana comply with the descriptions of aforementioned ancient scientists, and closely resemble to those of numismatic figures of silphion plant found on the Cyrenaic coins suggesting a close relation between silphion plant and F. drudeana. Furthermore, several novel and known secondary metabolites were isolated from the roots of F. drudeana, the pharmacological activities of known metabolites support the reported medicinal use of silphion and corroborate the identity of F. drudeana as the silphion plant (1). Since only a limited number of individual plants exist in the nature, a conservation study has been initiated to preserve and propagate this precious Ferula species. @font-face {font-family:"MS Mincho"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"ＭＳ 明朝"; mso-font-charset:78; mso-generic-font-family:auto; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-536870145 1791491579 18 0 131231 0;}@font-face {font-family:"Cambria Math"; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:3 0 0 0 1 0;}@font-face {font-family:Cambria; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-536870145 1073743103 0 0 415 0;}p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Cambria",serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}.MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; font-family:"Cambria",serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}div.WordSection1 {page:WordSection1;} 1. Miski, M. Next Chapter in the Legend of Silphion: Preliminary Morphological, Chemical, Biological and Pharmacological Evaluations, Initial Conservation Studies, and Reassessment of the Regional Extinction Event. Plants 2021, 10, 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10010102 @font-face {font-family:"MS Mincho"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"ＭＳ 明朝"; mso-font-charset:78; mso-generic-font-family:auto; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-536870145 1791491579 18 0 131231 0;}@font-face {font-family:"Cambria Math"; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:3 0 0 0 1 0;}@font-face {font-family:Cambria; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-536870145 1073743103 0 0 415 0;}p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Cambria",serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {mso-style-priority:99; color:blue; mso-themecolor:hyperlink; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;}a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; color:purple; mso-themecolor:followedhyperlink; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;}.MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; font-family:"Cambria",serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}div.WordSection1 {page:WordSection1;}